Eukaryotic Cells And Its Functions - 978 Words

â€Å"Eukaryotic cells are complex and include all animal and plant cells. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler, e.g. Bacteria† - (AQA 2008) Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, whereas prokaryotic cells do not contain these. Although both of these cells contain DNA, only eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus. The nucleus is the largest organelle, surrounded by a double membrane (nuclear envelope) containing lots of pores. The nuclear membrane protects contents of the nucleus and controls the transport of substances in and out. The nucleus contains linear DNA in chromatin which protects the DNA from damage. Chromatin is formed of DNA which controls the activities of the cell. The nucleus often contains a structure called the nucleolus. This structure produces ribosomes which enter the cytoplasm in the cell through the nuclear pores, as well as transcribing DNA into RNA. Prokaryotic cells do not contain nuclei. Instead of having a nucleus to carry the DNA, these cells contain plasmids with circular DNA, as well as having most of the DNA float freely inside the cytoplasm. The plasmids carry the information necessary to keep the cell alive. For example including genes that make the bacteria cell resistant to antibiotics. Both cells transcribe DNA into RNA in order to translate RNA and produce proteins on ribosomes. Endoplasmic Reticulum is present in eukaryotic cells. There are two types of ER: Smooth and rough. â€Å"This organelle is formed of a network ofShow MoreRelatedFunctions And Functions Of Eukaryotic Cell874 Words   |  4 Pagesplants are very complex; it has infinitely many functions. These functions are carried out by organs; all organs in the body operate in a choreograph manner that keeps the body in a healthy state. If these functions decide to fail, life cannot be sustained. With that said, without the body’s secret ingredients the organs and the functions they carry out will cease to exist. These secret ingredient are known as cells—the fundamental unit of life. Cells are essential to sustaining life; ironically itRead MoreFunctions Of Eukaryotic Cells For Various Functions And Processes1548 Words   |  7 PagesMicrotubules are an essential part of eukaryotic cells for various functions and processes, and are located throughout the cytoplasm in the cytoskelet on. Microtubules are essential for multiple cellular processes such as, cellular division and cellular movement and transport(6). Since microtubules are required for many cellular processes, mutations involving microtubules can cause various diseases including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer(5). One of the most common neurodegenerative diseasesRead MoreStructure and Function of Eukaryotic Cell Organelles1800 Words   |  8 PagesStructure and Function of Eukaryotic Cell Organelles What are eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells? Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells The Nucleus. Nearly all animal cells have a nucleus, with the only exception being the red blood cell. The nucleus has two major functions, which are housing the DNA and controlling the cell’s activities. In the centre of the nucleus is the nucleolus. This doesn’t have a membrane, but holds itself together. In the nucleolus, ribosomes are created through the mixtureRead MoreThe Structure And Function Of Organelles Within A Eukaryotic Cell Essay1376 Words   |  6 PagesStructure and Function of Organelles within a Eukaryotic Cell The Structure of the Membrane and its Function in Cell Transport The essence of life begins with knowing that all living things are made from cells. Cells and what is contained inside form the basic unit of structure and function in an organism. All cells have the same basic structure, the vital part being organelles. The name organelle comes from the Latin organellea; which means little organ. They can be found in both eukaryotic and prokaryoticRead MoreA Comparison of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells Essay1304 Words   |  6 PagesA Comparison of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells There are two main types of cells in the world. The simplest cells such as bacteria are known as Prokaryotic cells, and human cells are known as Eukaryotic cells. The main difference between each of these cells is that a eukaryotic cell has a nucleus and a membrane bound section in which the cell holds the main DNA which are building blocks of life. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. The chromosomes which are found in prokaryotes are usuallyRead MoreProkaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells853 Words   |  4 PagesProkaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Cells are the basic building block of life. Cells can be either Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic cells. Organism can only contain either one but not both of them. Prokaryotic cells are usually much smaller than Eukaryotic and are less complex. Bacteria are made up of one or more prokaryotic cells. Bacteria are made up of one or more prokaryotic cells. While Eukaryotic cell are found inside plant and animal life. Eukaryotic are more advanced and larger. Prokaryotic cell were theRead MoreEukaryotic Of Eukaryotic And Eukaryotic Genomes986 Words   |  4 Pagesthe prokaryotic domain of life, while humans and most other readily visible life forms are firmly rooted in the eukaryotic domain. These domains diverged many millions of years ago from a common ancestor and, while the eukaryotic branch later split into eukaryotic and archaeal domains, it maintained its separation from the prokaryotic domain (Woese et al., 1990). Prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes are naturally very distinct in both co ntent and structure as a result of eons-long separation, and oneRead MoreThe Structure Of Eukaryotic Chromosomes1510 Words   |  7 Pagescertain structure in order for it to function correctly. Understanding the structure of eukaryotic chromosomes, or condensed forms of DNA, and how they function helps scientists understand how human DNA is unique. These highly specialized cells help eukaryotic organisms, such as humans, to sustain life. What is a eukaryotic organism? A eukaryotic organism is any organism with complex cells, or a single cell with a complex structure. These eukaryotic organisms cells genetic material is organized intoRead MoreThe Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms Essay1696 Words   |  7 Pagesprokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and explore the reasoning behind such differences with regard to general structure, storage of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and its replication, metabolic processes, protein synthesis and ribonucleic acid (RNA) processing. The cell is the most basic unit of life, defined as â€Å"The fundamental ... structural and functional unit of all living organisms† (Oxford University Press, 2008). The prokaryotic cell is typically composed of a plasma membrane and cell wall, containingRead MoreWhy We Study the Cell and Its Components.738 Words   |  3 PagesWhy We Study the Cell and Its Components The cell is the most basic form of life essentially. Anything that is living fundamentally is composed of cells. We study the cell because it is the simplest unit of all living organisms and to begin understanding life, we must realize the cell’s structure, whether it is about the different types of cells or how the cell functions. Biology is the study of life and for the human species; the cell is the most basic principle of life, which is why it is so

Abortion Analytical Essay - 1139 Words

Abortions: Morally Acceptable or Not? The issue of abortion is one of the most sensitive and controversial issues faced by modern societies. This issue leads to topics of whether abortion is right or wrong, if it is the actual killing of a person, and what actually defines the moral status of a fetus. In this paper, I will be arguing against Bonnie Steinbock, who believes that abortions are morally acceptable. So I will be supporting the view that abortions are not morally acceptable. In Bonnie Steinbock’s essay, â€Å"Why Abortions Are Not Wrong,† she argues that abortions are morally acceptable because fetuses are non-sentient beings and therefore lack interests as well as moral status. Her first premise suggests that it is wrong to kill†¦show more content†¦Although, Steinbock’s third premise suggests that some abortions are the killing of a non-sentient organism. By this she means, some abortions may be immoral for many reasons such as, trivial reasons, sex selection, fetal reduction, and vengeful abortion. The trivial reasons are of little worth and importance. Steinbock describes the story of a girl not wanting to be pregnant in the summer because she would be unable to wear a bikini. She concludes that this would be a very immoral reason for having an abortion. Sex selection refers to the â€Å"destruction of a healthy fetus just because of its sex to be immoral, either because of the sexist attitude or because such abortions reflect insufficient respect for potential human life.† Fetal reduction is the practice of reducing the number of fetuses in a pregnancy with more than one fetus. Steinbock states that this is rather difficult and understands this practice. Vengeful abortions are the seeking to harm someone else beside the fetus. Steinbock describes it as, a woman who might have an abortion to seek revenge on her husband because he was unfaithful to her earlier in their marriage. Steinbock concludes that these reasons are all bizarre and can result in the killing of non-sentient beings. After reading Bonnie Steinbock’s article, I will be arguing against her conclusion that some abortionsShow MoreRelatedThe Gardens Of Democracy By Eric Liu And Nick Hanauer1446 Words   |  6 PagesAnalytical Essay Introduction Throughout the world, many contemporary issues occur in the world of Politics. Democracy is also involved with several contemporary issues. According to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary (2014), the word democracy is defined as a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections (Page 215). 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Corporate Governance and Social Responsibility †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Corporate Governance Principles and Social Responsibility. Answer: Introduction Corporate governance is the set of activities and regulations by which board of directors direct and manages the operations of a company and ensures fairness, responsibility, and transparency in corporations while dealing with its stakeholders. The stakeholder of a firm includes consumers, government, shareholders, investors, creditors, environment, community and many others. Many modern organisations have adopted corporate social responsibility policies to ensure the satisfaction of multiple stakeholders but, many experts believe that it reduces a corporations performance and growth. The stakeholder approach is based upon various theories of justice, ethics, and morality and it has a positive impact on the society. Many experts support the stakeholder approach by stating that company is not a profit machine, it has several moral duties towards society and stakeholders. There are several stakeholders theories that can be applied by the directors; these theories focus on fulfilling the requirements of multiple stakeholders. This report will analyse various articles on shareholder and stakeholder approach to understand their influence and importance in a corporations growth. The impact of stakeholder approach over society will be discussed in the report as well. Further, the report will evaluate multiple theories of justice and corporate governance to understand their impact on a company. Purpose The key purpose of this report is to analyse the articles provided by multiple experts regarding shareholder and stakeholder approach. The primary focus of the report will be in the articles submitted by Milton Friedman and R. Edward Freeman (and others) regarding the stakeholder and shareholder approach. Further, the report will also discuss benefits of implementing a broader view by a firm. The report will evaluate various theories of justice to determine the social role of a company towards the development of society. The report will analyse multiple corporate social responsibility theories that can be applied by directors in a firm for the fulfillment of their social responsibility. The report will provide few suggestions that can be implemented by directors for effective implementation of corporate governance. Scope The report primarily focuses on articles, journals, books or studies provided by experts regarding shareholder and stakeholder theory. The articles submitted by Milton Friedman and R. Edward Freeman will be the primary focus of the report. Many other opinions and researches conducted by theorist will be discussed to understand the role of corporate governance in a firm Literature Review A shareholder is an individual, corporation or any other institution that invest its money in the shares of a company, the shareholders are considered as the owner of an organisation, and they benefit and loss based on the performance of the enterprise. As per Ayuson and Argandona (2009), the directors are responsible towards shareholder, and they must maximise the value of shareholders. Many theorists believe that the primary objective of a company is to maximise the profits for its shareholders. However, many articles and academic journal assert that modern corporations prefer to adopt a stakeholders strategy. The shareholder theory has been widely challenged in previous few years; many experts believe that solely focusing on profit maximisation is wrong and immoral. The concept of corporate social responsibility is prominent in between modern companies; the CSR theory provides that a company has moral duties towards its multiple stakeholders. Smith (2003) argued that both stakehol der and shareholder theories are normative concepts that mean they contain a provision regarding what corporation role ought to be. According to Cooper (2017), todays modern firms can expand their business in different companies and their actions considerably affect various sections of society, therefore, implement stakeholder policy is an oversimplification of the complex role of organisations. Friedman (2007) argued that it is wrong to consider that a company has social responsibilities towards the society, a firm is an artificial person and it has artificial responsibilities. The primary role of a corporation is to satisfy their shareholders' needs because they invest in the enterprise and face the risk of loss. The purpose of directors should be clear; they should perform actions by complying with the common law to maximise the value of shareholders. Friedman (2007) stated in his article that unless a company is incorporated for a particular non-profit purpose, such as a hospital, welfare institute or school, its primary focus should be profit maximisation. According to Fisch (2005), if director implement the social responsibilities approach, then companys primary focus shifted from profit making to the welfare of society, which can be detrimental to the development of an enterprise. The shareholders face major risk in an organisation because they invest their capital in companys stock. Therefore, the directors should only focus on enhancing the shareholder value. As per Friedman (2007), the stakeholder's interest should be secondary in a company because without fulfilling the benefit of the shareholder, the company cannot satisfy its objectives. Friedman (2007) argued that the concept of corporations social responsibility is provided by the trade unions and activist groups to justify the transaction of a company which will not be otherwise benefited from its interest. Boatright (2006) provided that for achieving the growth in business, it is necessary that the company fulfills the requirement of stakeholders, but, he argued that it is not the duty of directors to create policies regarding the same. The directors are an agent of shareholders, and their primary focus should be improving the value of shareholders, the interest of other stakeholders should not be the concern of directors. If the shareholders value increases in a company, the interest of other stakeholders fulfilled through the market. According to Boatright (2006), the directors should not formulate corporate policies for the stakeholders; they can achieve that by focusing on shareholders interest. A different theory was given by Freeman, Harrison, and Wicks (20 07); they provided the importance of stakeholders in a company and its positive impact on the companys operations. The growth in corporations increased their impact on the society; the companies have a moral duty to satisfy the interest of various sections of the community. Freeman, Harrison, and Wicks (2007) stated that it is the responsibility of directors to ensure that actions of the company are fulfilling the interest of various stakeholders. Effective policies of corporate governance are necessary for a company to ensure satisfaction of their stakeholders, and directors should formulate plans to ensure satisfaction of multiple stakeholders. Many theorists have also provided different theories from shareholder and stakeholder approach. Bainbridge (2005) presented a theory called Director Primacy Model which provides that directors are responsible for the activities of corporate governance, therefore, they should be in the center of a firm. To maximise shareholder value, directors should be able to decide in a corporation without review from any other parties; the shareholders should not have the power to review the decision of directors since it retrains their power to operate a business efficiently. Another similar theory was provided by Million ( 2010) called Enlightened Shareholder Value. The theory focus on improving the shareholders worth by providing absolute power to the directors of a firm, the directors power is original, and it cannot be delegated to any other parties. According to Parmar et al. (2010), the directors best understand business, therefore, they should be able to decide the relevancy of each shareholder and formulate policies according to such relevancy. These theories did not popularise because there have several flaws, such as the theory did not consider the interest of creditors or give them relevance. There is lack of proper safety mechanism if directors decide to take unfair advantage of their powers and there is no method of measuring good faith of directors. As per Jensen (2002), it is not beneficial and productive for a company to argue over the importance of shareholder and stakeholders, both parties are depending upon the performance of an organisation which can be achieved by implementing stakeholders approach. Stout (2013) argues that the directors should focus on value maximisation of stakeholders and formulate policies achieve such objectives. The role of modern corporations has increased due to the advancement of technol ogy, regulations, and governments. The directors should ascertain their moral duty towards society and formulate corporate policies to achieve such objectives. Advantage of Adopting and Broader View Many theorists criticise the shareholder approach and enforce the implementation of stakeholders approach in modern corporations and provide that without fulfillment of stakeholders interest a company cannot achieve growth. As per Laplume, Sonpar, and Litz (2008), a stakeholder includes individual, organization or any other institute that has a financial interest in the operation of a firm or gets affected by the practices of the company. The example of stakeholders includes employees, consumers, government, environment, creditors, shareholders and many others. The stakeholders are categorised into three parts: primary, secondary and territory. The primary stakeholder is an integral part of a company; they have a financial interest in the performance of a firm and loss or gain based on the return of an enterprise. The example of primary stakeholders includes consumers, employees, shareholders, creditors, investors and many others. The secondary stakeholders did not have any financial interest in business operations, but they get influenced by the performance of a company, they are also called external stakeholders. The secondary stakeholders include media, community, public and many others. According to Sweeney and Coughlan (2008), the tertiary stakeholders neither have any financial interest in a company, nor they get affected by its operations but their opinions positively or adversely influence the companys performance. The example of tertiary stakeholders includes activist groups, government, environment and many others. A significant part of society gets covered in primary and secondary stakeholders, which prove that actions of a company influence a large section of society. Modern corporations are focusing more on stakeholders interest due to the popularity of corporate social responsibility provisions, the concept of a company being profit making machine is changing slowly in the market. The corporate s ocial responsibility principles ensure that directors formulate policies regarding the satisfaction of multiple stakeholders interest. As per the study of Martin (2010), two variables cannot be satisfied at a single time that means a company cannot meet consumer and shareholder interest at the same time. The satisfaction of shareholders will hurdle in benefit of consumers and vice versa. Usually, directors prefer to fulfill the interest of shareholders because it attracts more shareholders investment, but according to Martin (2010), that is a wrong approach. The dividend of shareholders is provided after the reduction of statutory payments such as salaries, the interest on loans and taxes. The shareholders focus on future profit of a company instead of present value, for attracting a large number of shareholders the companies are required to sustain their growth. As per Greenwood and Van Buren (2010), it is impossible for companies to maintain their development for an indefinite period; therefore they should focus on improving stakeholders value instead of enhancing shareholders worth. The improvement in stakeholder s value will allow the companies to attract a large number of investments from the shareholders which will assist in sustaining the growth of the business. Justice Theories Manners (2008) stated that the normative ethics is related to the philosophical ethics which focus on examine the moral and ethical practices. The normative ethics analyses the rightness and wrongness of an ethical belief, it performs an empirical study into the view of peoples. For example, if individual beliefs that conducting fraud is wrong that the normative ethics evaluate that whether it is right or wrong to hold such an opinion by a person. The justices are defined as fairness by Rawls (2009); he stated that justice is divided into two parts. The first part provides that society should be strutted in a way to ensure that each section has equal liberty; another party must not infringe the rights of a person. The second part prohibits the discrimination between individuals in a society unless it is necessary to discriminate a minority party to provide them benefits. Rawls (2009) also ensures that the person who possesses power must not prohibit the opportunity of another party f or gaining such strength. According to Bowie (2017), the Kantian View theory by given by Immanuel Kant which focuses on the equal status of stakeholders in a company, the directors should ensure that company is formulating necessary policies for the satisfaction of all stakeholders. These theories focus on directors responsibility towards stakeholders and the requirement of better social responsibility policies in a company. The theories focus on the moral responsibility of directors and the role of stakeholders in a company. Many theorists have provided opposite views over the same matter, for example, Jeremy Benthams Utilitarian theory. As per Renouard (2011), the Utilitarian theory provides an opposite view over the Kantian theory which provides that instead of focusing on achieving stakeholders interest, the director should perform their duties within the law. The maximisation of shareholders value assists in satisfaction of the interest of other stakeholders; directors are not required to formulate speci fic policies for different stakeholders. Numerous experts have criticised the Utilitarian theory; they believed that this approach could not be applied to modern corporations since it does not have any practical use. According to Rawls (2009), by distributing the wealth more equally (not evenly) between stakeholders, a company can sustain their future development. If the company only focus on improving shareholders value than the resources will only be provided to the shareholders, and it creates a problem of discrimination. The discrimination between stakeholders reduces the growth of a company because it reduces its reputation and business. By efficiently implementing corporate governance principles, the directors can satisfy the interest of stakeholders. As per Zakhem (2008), the directors have a duty of care toward multiple stakeholders that means it is their responsibility to ensure that equal protection is given to each stakeholder. The directors have a fiduciary duty towards the company which requires them to perform their actions morally and in good faith of the corporation. Directors should avoid the discrimination in an organization, and strict policies should be implemented to prevent any mistreatment of stakeholder. Laczniak and Murphy (2012) stated that each stakeholder is a crucial part of a corporate structure and directors are morally responsible towards them; the corporate social responsibility principles ensure that directors analyse the requirement of stakeholders and formulate policies to meet such requirements. The duty of care must be fulfilled by the directors while performing their responsibilities of corporate governance. Theories of Corporate Governance To ensure the fulfillment of their duty of care, the directors can implement various approaches to corporate governance which provide proper achievement of stakeholders interest. According to Lee (2008), in modern times, the principle of corporate social responsibility is significantly popular between the corporations. The corporate social responsibility allows companies to incorporate policies of environmental and social welfare into the business structure. The CSR policies are self-regulated by the enterprises and directors construct such systems into corporations business structure. The CSR regulations assist companies in complying with various national and international laws regarding moral, ethical and legislative matters. Carroll (2008) stated that the CSR policies did not just focus on compliance of statutory rules instead it emphasis on the social responsibilities of a company towards the society. The CSR policy is benefited for international corporations since they deal with different domestic and international regulations and it ensures that the company fulfills each stakeholder's interest. Mele (2008) provided that by implementing an efficient CSR model, a company can achieve various advantages such as positive reputation, improved trading, international brand recognition, better financial performance, and improved employees productivity. It also benefits enterprise in recruitment and retention process since it attracts and retains talented employees, the procedure of accessing investment also become more accessible for companies. Bocken et al. (2016) provided that a company can adopt a 'circular economy' approach for improvement of business operations; it benefits the company in various ways such as reduction of wastage in raw material, saving of energy, and improved employees productivity. The company can achieve that by implementing various methods such as recycling, reuse of material, building long-lasting products, proper maintenance, and repair of machinery. According to Porter et al. (2011), the Creating shared value approach is another theory which benefits directors into establishing a positive environment for the stakeholders. The CSV policy creates a link between competitive strategy and CSR principles, it allows in creating a healthy competitive environment in the industry. As per Banerjee (2008), the CSV value creates equal opportunities for different stakeholders and develops each section of society; it allows company into identifying and capitalise the financial and social development in the ind ustry. These strategies allow the companies to fulfill their moral duties towards society and assist in the growth of the company. The role of modern corporations has enhanced, and the directors are responsible towards multiple stakeholders, by implementing these theories, the director can ensure the equal satisfaction of stakeholders interest in the company which benefits the society as well. Conclusion and Recommendations From the above observations, it can be concluded that the modern corporations have duties towards different stakeholders. The benefit of stakeholders can improve the growth of a company, and it benefits various sections of society. Many theorists argued that stakeholders approach is detrimental to the growth of a company since it shifts the focus from profit maximisation. But, many studies have provided that stakeholder approach benefits enterprise in several ways which sustain its development such as improved reputation, positive brand recognition, and easy availability of investment. A company should adopt a broader view of business structure because it benefits various parts of society and assists the enterprise in fulfilling their social responsibilities. Various theories of justice also provide that directors have a duty of care towards its stakeholders, and they should formulate policies to satisfy the interest of stakeholders. Directors can adopt many theories for the satisfac tion of stakeholders interest such as CSV, CSR, and circular economy. These approaches assist modern corporations in fulfilling their social responsibilities and provide various benefits to the section of society. As per my recommendation, a company should adopt stakeholder approach rather than shareholder primacy theory; it will assist in overall development of the firm and sustain future growth of the business. Before implementing stakeholders approach, the directors should analyse the number of stakeholders in the company and analyse their interest and requirements. The corporate policies should be according to the interest of stakeholders; the policies must equally cover the requirement of each stakeholder. Directors must ensure proper implementation of policies in the corporations, and they have to monitor the organisational environment constantly. The policies should be changed in case any external or internal factors affect the interest of stakeholders. By implementing this approach, a company can fulfill its moral responsibility and assist in the development of society. References Ayuso, S. and Argandoa, A., 2009. Responsible corporate governance: Towards a stakeholder board of directors?. Bainbridge, S.M., 2002. Director primacy: The means and ends of corporate governance.Nw. UL Rev.,97, p.547. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=300860 Banerjee, S.B., 2008. Corporate social responsibility: The good, the bad and the ugly.Critical sociology,34(1), pp.51-79. Boatright, J.R., 2006. Whats wrongand whats rightwith stakeholder management.Journal of Private Enterprise,21(2), pp.106-130. Bocken, N.M., de Pauw, I., Bakker, C. and van der Grinten, B., 2016. Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy.Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering,33(5), pp.308-320. Bowie, N.E., 2017.Business ethics: A Kantian perspective. Cambridge University Press. Carroll, A.B., 2008. A history of corporate social responsibility. InThe Oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility. Cooper, S., 2017.Corporate social performance: A stakeholder approach. Taylor Francis. Fisch, J.E., 2005. Measuring efficiency in corporate law: The role of shareholder primacy.J. Corp. l.,31, p.637. Freeman, R.E., Harrison, J.S. and Wicks, A.C., 2007.Managing for stakeholders: Survival, reputation, and success. Yale University Press. Friedman, M., 2007. The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits.Corporate ethics and corporate governance, pp.173-178. Greenwood, M. and Van Buren III, H.J., 2010. Trust and stakeholder theory: Trustworthiness in the organisationstakeholder relationship.Journal of business ethics,95(3), pp.425-438. Jensen, M.C., 2002. Value maximization, stakeholder theory, and the corporate objective function.Business ethics quarterly, pp.235-256. Laczniak, G.R. and Murphy, P.E., 2012. Stakeholder theory and marketing: Moving from a firm-centric to a societal perspective.Journal of Public Policy Marketing,31(2), pp.284-292. Laplume, A.O., Sonpar, K. and Litz, R.A., 2008. Stakeholder theory: Reviewing a theory that moves us.Journal of management,34(6), pp.1152-1189. Lee, M.D.P., 2008. A review of the theories of corporate social responsibility: Its evolutionary path and the road ahead.International journal ofmanagement reviews,10(1), pp.53-73. Manners, I.A., 2008. The normative ethics of the European Union.International affairs,84(1), pp.45-60. Martin, R., 2010. The age of customer capitalism.Harvard business review,88(1). Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2010/01/the-age-of-customer-capitalism Mel, D., 2008. Corporate social responsibility theories. InThe Oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility. Millon, D., 2010. Enlightened shareholder value, social responsibility, and the redefinition of corporate purpose without law. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1625750 Parmar, B.L., Freeman, R.E., Harrison, J.S., Wicks, A.C., Purnell, L. and De Colle, S., 2010. Stakeholder theory: The state of the art.Academy of Management Annals,4(1), pp.403-445. Porter, M.E., Hills, G., Pfitzer, M., Patscheke, S. and Hawkins, E., 2011. Measuring shared value: How to unlock value by linking social and business results. Rawls, J., 2009.A theory of justice. Harvard university press. Renouard, C., 2011. Corporate social responsibility, utilitarianism, and the capabilities approach.Journal of business ethics,98(1), pp.85-97. Smith, H.J., 2003. The shareholders vs. stakeholders debate.MIT SloanManagement Review,44(4), pp.85-91. Retrieved from https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/the-shareholders-vs-stakeholders-debate/ Stout, L.A., 2013. The toxic side effects of shareholder primacy.University of Pennsylvania Law Review,161(7), pp.2003-2023. Sweeney, L. and Coughlan, J., 2008. Do different industries report corporate social responsibility differently? An investigation through the lens of stakeholder theory.Journal of Marketing Communications,14(2), pp.113-124. Zakhem, A., 2008. Stakeholder management capability: A discoursetheoretical approach.Journal of Business ethics,79(4), pp.395-405.